C) Working and Living at Sea

C.1 Employment and Resource Management

Details

Published: 09 January 2022

NATALIE SHAW

Recruitment

Introduction

Due to the global nature of shipping, seafarers are often recruited from developing countries to work onboard vessels flagged to another country that then sail to many countries worldwide.  Often they will work for periods in excess of 9 months and need to be fit enough to perform their duties.  Seafarers are also required to undergo medical examinations to reduce risks to other crewmembers and for the safe operation of the ship, as well as to safeguard their personal health and safety. Further information on the medical selection of seafarers is available in Ch 4.8. In addition, they must have successfully completed essential safety courses and to hold certificates of competence appropriate for the position they will hold.

The ILO Maritime Labour Convention, 2006^[1] Regulation 1.4 and Standard A1.4 aim to ensure that seafarers can access an efficient and well-regulated seafarer recruitment and placement system.  It contains requirements for public and private services whose primary purpose is the recruitment and placement of seafarers or which recruit and place a significant number of seafarers. Each country that ratifies the MLC must advise its nationals on possible implications of signing on a ship that flies the flag of a State that has not ratified the MLC, until it is satisfied that standards equivalent to those within the MLC are applied. Such measures shall not contradict the principle of free movement of workers stipulated by treaties to which the two States concerned may be parties.

Where do crew come from?

The 2021 BIMCO and International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) workforce report estimates that the global supply of seafarers is 1,892,720 seafarers, with 857,540 officers and

1,035,180 ratings. This is an increase of 10.8% officers and 18.5% ratings since 2015. Shipping companies state that the largest seafarer supply companies, commonly known as the ‘crewing countries’ are:

Manning agents

Many ship owners and ship operators do not recruit seafarers directly but use third party agencies.

A manning agent is a recruitment agency that fulfils the following functions:

• advertises a vacancy and gathers applications
• Checks their credentials, such as certificates of competence
• proposes seafarers/candidates to principals/clients,
• arranges medical and visa requirements for outgoing seafarers and
• arranges most local procedures / requirements for crew joining.

Manning agents may act in one of three ways, as a:

• Introductory agency – which will send papers for a company to review
• Hiring hall - an organization usually under a labour union’s auspices, which provides new recruits for employers with a collective bargaining agreement with the union. Use of a hiring hall may be voluntary, or compulsory under the terms of a contract with the union, or, in a few cases, jurisdiction labour laws. Compulsory hiring hall use may turn employers into a closed shop requiring seafarers to join a union before hire. The hiring hall requires a union to ensure members are suitably qualified and responsible before employer deployment. A union will often enforce a basic code of conduct among members. They are most prevalent in skilled trades and where employers require qualified recruits, quickly. The union and employer relationship can be relatively harmonious if a hiring hall is reputable. The union will handle qualifications, eligibility requirements and maintain individual employment records.
• Employment business that chooses seafarers for shipping companies similarly to a recrutiment agency that provides workers for a defined period for shore-based roles. They may supply applications and/or curriculum vitae to employers, or they may conduct interviews on the employer’s behalf, in return for a fee paid by the employer.

Employment

Crew managers

In addition, companies may use a crew manager to employ seafarers on behalf of a ship owner or operator. Crew managers

• sign Crew Management Agreements with ship owners
• interview seafarers and ensures all licences and certificates are authenticated
• ensure that medicals and all other local requirements are satisfied.
• select appropriate and competent seafarers according to their service and experience and allocate them to relevant ships under management.
• may act as the maritime employer having all the judicial responsibilities for the crew.
• ensures that the laws of the flag State of the ships are satisfied as regards to ranks, qualifications and certificates of crew, employment regulations and crew tax and social insurance.
• implement under its own name insurances for crew accident, crew protection and indemnity exposure.
• administer crew and all their related issues including but not limited to:
  • travel arrangements to and from the ships
  • payroll matters
  • medical needs
  • replacement, including leave applications
  • conclusion of union agreements etc.
• provide training for cadets, leading to the attainment of STCW Certificates of Competency.
• identify upgrading and training needs of seafarers. Initiates and implements training schemes on board and ashore aiming at maintaining the high quality and competence of the seafarers.
• provide crew management services

Types of contract

Seafarers from the main crewing countries are often employed on a single trip contract. This means that they are guaranteed one contract, for up to 11 months as regulated by MLC. However, they have no guarantee of further work and must wait for the next available and appropriate position.

Others, mainly officers and often in countries with stronger employment laws, are employed on a permanent, long term contract and therefore have the security of knowing that they will have a further trip to sea after a period of leave. This type of employment is beneficial in many ways, including but not limited to:

• Knowledge of regular income for the seafarer
• Reassurance for the seafarer and family of ongoing employment
• Additional guarantee of medical expenses cover and assistance with rehabilitation to get back to work
• Regular scheduled contracts that are planned in advance

Seafarers Wages

Minimum wage

Seafarers’ wages can vary considerably across vessels depending on the nature of the work they perform and the country from which the seafarers are hired.  There is no legal minimum wage for a seafarer but the MLC 2006^[2] does include the concept of the recommended ILO minimum wage. This is revised at agreed intervals, specifically for an Able Bodied seafarer (AB), and is used by many shipping operators and trade unions. 

Payment of wages

The MLC also has clear information relating to the payment of wages and what must be laid out in contracts of employment and done by owners to ensure timely payment etc.  Where there are concerns that seafarers wages are not being paid the first point of reference should be to check the Ship’s Maritime Labour Certificate and accompanying Document of Maritime Labour Compliance.  If there are still concerns a seafarer should contact the port State authority and ask them to investigate as appropriate with the flag State. 

Wages may also be paid to seafarers in whole or in part with some of the money transmitted to their families as agreed by them and their employers.

Other benefits

Other benefits may be included in a seafarer’s contract, depending on a number of factors that include the company, the type of contract and the position of the seafarer.

Types of benefits include but are not limited to:

• Bonus schemes
• Share schemes
• Health and medical expenses
• Additional social security benefits
• Support for families whilst the seafarer is away at sea
• Enhanced holiday leave

^[1] https://www.ilo.org/global/standards/maritime-labour-convention/text/WCMS_763684/lang--en/index.htm

^[2] https://www.ilo.org/dyn/normlex/en/f?p=NORMLEXPUB:91:0::::P91_SECTION:MLCA_AMEND_A2

C.3 Positions on board

Details

Published: 09 January 2022

VIVEK MENON

Organisational structure on board

The crew of a ship are the personnel who sail on board and are responsible for its operation, primarily when the ship is at sea. They also have some responsibilities when in port. All ships, i.e. cargo and passenger ships have similar crew departments. However, in addition, passenger ships carry passenger service and entertainment staff, who, for the purpose of this chapter are referred to as non-traditional crew. The traditional crew of a ship are divided into three departments:

• Deck department
• Engine department
• Catering (steward’s) department

The bridge of a ship is the navigation hub fitted with advanced machinery systems for safe navigation. Seafarers in the deck department, mainly deck officers and ratings, are responsible for the navigation of the ship, handling of cargo operations and machinery on the deck of the ship.

The engine department includes marine engineer officers and ratings responsible for operation and maintenance of the ship’s machinery. The engine room houses the propulsion and power generating machinery required for the safe operation of the ship.

The catering department is responsible for the preparation of meals and general housekeeping for crew and passengers. The number of personnel in this department varies with the type of ship. Passenger vessels would have several members and ranks while a cargo ship may have only a couple of members owing to the difference in the number of people on board.

Figure 1: Typical ship-board organisational chart – Credit T. Bielić, D. Ivanišević, A. Gundić: Participation-Based Model of Ship Crew Management

Figure 1: Typical ship-board organisational chart

The Master is the ship's highest responsible officer, acting on behalf of the ship's owner / operator or manager. He may be one of a number of seafarer’s on board to hold a Master Mariner certificate and hold the rank of Captain but only one person can be the Master of the ship. The Master is legally responsible for the day-to-day management of the ship. It is his responsibility to ensure that all the departments perform legally to the requirements of the ship's owner /operator or manager. The ship has a number of deck officers that assist the Master. In addition, the Master also has the advice of pilots when the ship is navigating in restricted waters, such as narrow or shallow channels. Each shipboard department has a designated head who reports to the Master.

The deck department is headed by the Chief Officer. The engine department is headed by the Chief Engineer. The Chief Steward is the head of the catering department.

Deck Department 

Chief Officer

The Chief Officer, also called the First Mate, is the head of the deck department. He is second-in-command after the Master. The Chief Officer's primary responsibilities are the vessel's cargo operations, its stability, and supervising the deck crew. The Chief Officer is responsible for the safety and security of the ship, as well as the welfare of the crew on board and usually is the officer responsible for medical care on board. The Chief Officer typically stands a bridge watch  from 0400 to 0800 hours and from 1600 to 2000 hours, the 4 - 8. Additional duties include ensuring good maintenance of the ship's hull, cargo gears, accommodation and the lifesaving and firefighting appliances. The Chief Officer also trains the crew and cadets on various aspects like safety, firefighting, search and rescue and various other contingencies. The Chief Officer may or may not have a Masters certificate that would allow him to take over duties from the Master should that be necessary.

Second Officer

The Second Officer, also called Second Mate, is usually in charge of ship navigation with a position below Chief Officer and above the Third Officer. He is the third in command, after the Master and Chief Officer. The second officer typically stands the bridge watch from 1200 to 1600 hrs and again from 0000 to 0400hrs, the 12 - 4. In some companies, the Second Officer is the officer responsible for medical care on board.

Third Officer

The Third Officer (also called the Third Mate) is primarily charged with the safety of the ship and crew and ensuring good maintenance of the lifesaving and firefighting appliances and generally serves as the ship's chief safety officer. The Third Officer is the next licensed position on board the vessel, as fourth-in-command and usually stands the bridge watch from 0800 – 1200 and 2000 – 2400, the 8 - 12.

Deck Cadet

The deck cadet is the trainee officer on board, fresh out of maritime school with the least experience on board ships. His task is to learn, comprehend and apply skills for the process of becoming a skilled officer in the future.

Boatswain:

The boatswain, who may also be known as the Bosun or ‘Chief Petty Officer’ (CPO), is the highest ranking unlicensed rating in the deck department. The boatswain generally carries out the tasks instructed by the Chief Officer, directing the able seaman and ordinary seaman. The boatswain generally does not stand a navigational watch.

Pump Man

The Pump Man works on tankers carrying liquid, gas or chemical cargo, ensuring the safe operation of pumps and the discharge of liquid cargo - mostly petroleum products. He plays a major part during loading and discharging, mainly opening valves as per the Chief Officer’s instruction, taking ullage and sounding measurements, etc. The Pump Man is also responsible for maintaining and repairing all cargo handling equipment on the vessel. This rank is equal to Bosun and mostly works independently, taking orders directly from the Chief Officer. 

Able Seaman

An Able Seaman (AB) works under the Boatswain, completing tasks such as working mooring lines, operating deck gear, standing anchor details, and working cargo. An AB also stands a navigational watch, generally as a lookout or helmsman, also known as quartermaster.

Ordinary Seaman

The lowest ranking personnel in the deck department. An Ordinary Seaman (OS) generally helps out with work that the Able Seamen do. Other tasks include standing lookout, and general cleaning duties.

Engine department

The engineers on board ships are also called technical officers. They are responsible for maintaining the machinery and ensuring it is operational. Today, ships are complex systems that combine a lot of technology within a small space. This includes not only the engines and the propulsion system, but also for example, the electrical power supply, devices for loading and discharging, garbage incineration and freshwater generators. Additionally, more and more environmental protection technologies, fuel treatment systems and cargo conditioning devices are used on board ships. The upkeep of all these are in the hands of engine department staff.

Chief Engineer

The Chief Engineer on a commercial vessel is the official title of someone qualified to manage and oversee the engine department. The Chief Engineer is responsible for the operation and maintenance of all of the engineering equipment throughout the ship and must be in possession of the appropriate Chief Engineer license as per STCW requirements. According to the Safety of life at sea (SOLAS) convention, it is the responsibility of the chief engineer to look after the safety of maritime professionals working in the engine room. The duties of the chief engineer are clearly mentioned in STCW 95 section A- III /2 (as amended). The Chief Engineer has other licensed engineers to assist with engine room watch and the performance of maintenance and repair of machinery on board ship.

Second Engineer

The Second Engineer, also called First Assistant Engineer, is the officer responsible for supervising the daily maintenance and operation of the engineering systems. He/she reports directly to the Chief Engineer. The Second Engineer is second in command in the engine department after the Chief Engineer. The duties of the chief engineer are clearly mentioned in STCW 95 section A- III /2 (as amended)

Duties include but not limited to the following:

• ensuring safety of personnel, their rest/working-hours;
• upkeep of safety equipment and pollution prevention equipment;
• operation and maintenance of equipment’s in the engine rooms and deck machinery;
• engine room management – for e.g. duties of other engineer and management of spares;
• documentation and record keeping in accordance to international, national and company rules and regulations;
• Training of junior and fellow colleagues.

The person holding this position is typically the busiest engineer on-board the ship, due to the supervisory role this engineer plays and the operational duties performed. Operational duties include responsibility for the main engines, refrigeration systems and any other equipment not assigned to the third or fourth engineers. The second engineer may or may not hold a Chief’s ticket that would allow him to assume the role of Chief Engineer if necessary.

Third Engineer

The Third Engineer is junior to the Second Engineer in the engine department and is usually in charge of boilers, fuel, auxiliary engines, condensate, and feed systems. Duties include but not limited to, performing independent engine watch, bunkering, if the officer holds a valid certificate for fuel transfer operations) and execute maintenance and repairs on equipment as delegated by the second engineer. On some ships the bunkering task responsibility may be shared between the Chief Officer and Second Engineer.

Fourth Engineer

The Fourth Engineer is junior to the Third Engineer in the engine department. As a junior marine engineer of the ship, he is usually responsible for the maintenance of electrical systems, sewage treatment, lube oil, bilge, and oily water separation systems. Depending on the vessel and manning, this person usually stands a watch. Moreover, the Fourth Engineer may assist the Third Officer in maintaining proper operation of the lifeboats. 

Trainee Marine Engineer

Trainee Marine Engineer, also known as Engine cadet, usually accompanies the Second Engineer, to assist and learn while observing and carrying out activities in the engine room.

Electro-Technical Officer

The ElectroTechnical Officer (ETO) handles various aspects on board a ship related to the electrical systems. The ETO usually reports to the Chief Engineer and organises his jobs in consultation with the Second Engineer. He handles the maintenance of various electrical systems in the engine room and the navigational equipment on the bridge. The myriad systems he would be working on would be as varied as the refrigeration system to the emergency systems or fire alarms and detectors to navigational lights and battery backups to electrically operated propelling machinery. Due to a general decrease in manning levels many vessels do not carry an ETO and hence these duties must be performed by other seafarers in addition to those duties already described.

Fitter

Fitters are certified professionals in welding and are skilled operators of the lathe machine. Their role is to ensure the proper fitting of the engine and other electrical parts in the engine room as well as to repair or fabricate pieces required for repairing broken/cracked components. They are important because of their technical and fitting skills, as well as their knowledge that is more technical rather than theory based.

Motorman

Motormen hold a watch keeping certificate and can stand watch along with Engineer Officers. They are delegated jobs by the Second Engineer and usually assist the Engineer Officers in the maintenance of machinery and keeping a track of operating parameters of the machinery.

Oiler

The Oiler does maintenance work in the engine room and does not hold a watch keeping certificate. He assists the duty Engineer at watch, if the ship is not an UMS ship. They assist Engineers in overhauling machinery, cleaning and painting etc. This rank is equal to an AB in the Deck Department. At times the oiler with experience may become a Pump Man.

Wiper

Wipers are responsible for assisting with the cleaning and maintenance of the engine room. They are usually not certified watch keepers although they may progress from this rank to that of a Motorman or Oiler after obtaining a watch keeping certificate and completing the required sailing time.

Steward's department

Chief Steward

A Chief Steward is the senior crew working in the galley department of a ship. Since there is no purser on most ships, the steward is the most senior person in the department, hence the name. The Chief Steward directs, instructs, and assigns personnel performing such functions as preparing and serving meals, cleaning and maintaining officers' quarters and communal areas, and receiving, issuing, and keeping an inventory of the stores. The Chief Steward also plans menus and compiles supply lists, overtime, and cost control records.

A Chief Steward's duties may overlap with those of the Steward's Assistant, the Chief Cook, and other steward's department crew. On large passenger vessels, the Chief Steward is known as the Passenger Services Director or Purser and is a high ranking officer. Here they are responsible for many staff including galley staff, restaurant and bar staff, reception staff, tours staff, housekeeping staff and staff tasked with the administration of potentially many thousands of crew members.

Chief Cook

A Chief Cook, also known as Cook, is the most senior seafarer in the Chief Steward's department of a merchant ship. On some ships, the Chief Cook is the senior most person in this department. The Chief Cook directs and participates in the preparation and serving of meals, determines the timing and sequence of operations required to meet serving times, inspects the galley and equipment for cleanliness and oversees the proper storage and preparation of food. The Cook may plan or assist in planning meals and taking an inventory of stores and equipment.

A Chief Cook's duties may overlap with those of the Steward's Assistant, the Chief Steward, and other steward's department crewmembers.

It is important to note that not all the roles described above may be presented onboard every vessel. This will depend on the size and operational complexity of the vessel. 

Numbers of crew

The IMO has laid down the Principles of Safe Manning, the objectives of which are to ensure that a ship is sufficiently, effectively and efficiently manned to provide safety and security of the ship, safe navigation and operations at sea, safe operations in port, prevention of human injury or loss of life, the avoidance of damage to the marine environment and to property, and to ensure the welfare and health of seafarers through the avoidance of fatigue.

Most vessels require a crew of 20-25 personnel consisting of officers (Master, Chief Engineer), specialist technicians (Electrical or Gas Engineers) and crew or ratings (Able seaman). Crew size and its onboard organisation structure depends on the size and operational complexity of the vessel. For e.g. a very large tanker vessel carries out more complex operations and they may require a larger crew.  

Below table provides a very generic overview of the number of crew that may be on different types of vessels:

Non-Traditional crew

Passenger ships in addition have passenger service and entertainment staff to take care of passengers on board. For example, a large Cruise Ship may carry around 2000 non-traditional crew members. Some of the ranks of non-traditional crew are listed below -

• Waiters and wine waiters
• Bar Staff
• Chefs and Galley Staff
• Back of House Staff
• Cabin Stewards
• Entertainment staff
• Tour staff
• Youth staff
• Shop Staff
• Beauticians and Hairdressers
• Casino Staff
• Medical staff

Additional information on passenger shipping is available in Chapter 2.12.

Interaction between ship and shore staff

In the early days of shipping, when vessels were at sea seafarers were totally cut off from shore‐side personnel. Even in port, vessels were normally out of contact with ship and cargo owners. Hence, the Master was in charge of all matters relating to trade, human resources, and finance. By contrast, in the modern context, ships are much more connected whilst at sea, by email, telephone and fax. Once in port, they are visited by a huge range of port and harbour officials. These interactions with office personnel and officials are vital to the smooth, and safe, operation of vessels. However, they are far from straightforward given that they take place in environments where communication may be challenging as a consequence of language, culture, time pressures, noise levels, stress and bureaucracy.

Personnel with whom seafarers interact can be broadly divided into those who are encountered in ports, usually face to face, and those who run shore‐side operations pertaining to the vessels. Although there are some exceptions, most seafarers do not have sustained relationships with the personnel they directly encounter in ports. Seafarers are more likely to enjoy longer‐term relationships with ‘operations’ personnel associated with their company, although this may often be in the absence of any direct face to face contact.

Figure 2 provides an overview of the personnel with whom seafarers interact.

Figure 3: Overview of ship-shore interactions

Ship‐staff and port‐personnel

Marine Pilots:

A marine pilot, also called maritime pilot, harbor pilot, port pilot, ship pilot, or simply pilot, is a mariner who maneuvers ships through dangerous or congested waters, such as harbors or rivers. They are navigational experts possessing knowledge of the particular waterway, licensed or authorised by a recognised pilotage authority. The pilot becomes an integral part of the Bridge Team Resource when navigating through dangerous and congested waters. The relationship between a Pilot and Master is an intriguing balance of mutual trust and respect, which is largely unwritten. During pilotage, the Masters is still in command of their vessel, however, the Pilot advises on direction of the movement of the vessel in order to transit the local channels, waterways etc.

Bunker personnel:

Bunkering is the supplying of fuel for use by ships. Bunkering may take place offshore, at anchor or alongside. It may be pumped from road tanker, bunker barge or another tanker or ship, and the people who work in providing this service are referred to as bunker personnel. Whatever the provider, the procedures followed are similar. Bunkering should be considered a high-risk operation, where mistakes can result in pollution, high financial penalties or even imprisonment. The Master is responsible for the overall operation, whilst the Chief Engineer is responsible for matters that concern the engine room including fuel oil systems, bunkering operation and quality of oil received.

Inspectors:

There are different types of inspectors who come onboard vessels and interact with the Master and crew. For e.g. Flag State Inspectors are used by flag states to ensure satisfactory standards are being maintained on board vessels flying their flag. Flag State Inspectors conduct a verification of statutory documentation and a general examination of the vessel's structure, machinery and equipment as well as a more thorough inspection and/or operational testing of firefighting equipment, lifesaving appliances and safety equipment.

Marine surveyors

A Marine surveyor (including "Yacht & Small Craft Surveyor", "Hull & Machinery Surveyor" and/or "Cargo Surveyor") is a person who conducts inspections, surveys or examinations of marine vessels to assess, monitor and report on their condition and the products on them, as well as inspects damage caused to both vessels and cargo.

Port Officials:

Just like when a person arrives in an airport they undergo immigration, customs and health clearance procedures, vessels and its crew experience the same which commonly known as vessel clearance procedures. Vessel clearance procedures are carried out by government port officials such as Port Health, Immigration and Customs. They verify documents presented by the Master for any non-compliance in accordance to the local law. Port State control (PSC) inspections of foreign ships are conducted by port State control officers (PSCOs) in national ports to verify that the condition of the ship and its equipment comply with the requirements of international applicable mandatory regulations and that the ship is manned and operated in compliance with these rules.

Vulnerability of seafarers and ships

Ships and seafarers in port are vulnerable to local officials who might cause delays and have the power to fine, detain, and tarnish the reputation of a vessel and to place criminal charges and even enforce the imprisonment of seafarers. In many areas of the world, the vulnerability of vessels and seafarers is not generally exploited by port‐based personnel. However, in some places such exploitation is routine and takes the form of demanding ‘gifts’ of produce and cash. There have also been cases, where port personnel were found to steal from seafarers and from ships and to abuse their power in order to extort cash from individuals.

Ship staff and shore‐based vessel personnel

Superintendents:

A Superintendent is a person ashore, responsible for providing organisational and operational support to the ship, and to facilitate safe and efficient running of the ship.

A superintendent using their knowledge and understanding of human resource management which is vital part of ship operations shall be able to provide support and supervision to the ships management, for operating and maintaining the ship to the relevant international, national, classification society and company requirements. A superintendent also supervises and directs shipyards, technicians and others for maintaining the ship to the required standards. A superintendent with the help of the Master and Chief Engineer evaluates the condition of the ship, by carrying out periodic inspections and by obtaining necessary reports from the ships and others. Additionally, a superintendent manages the ship operating costs and control costs based on the business goals of the organisation, while maintaining the ship in compliance with all mandatory regulations and local regulations.

There are primarily 2 categories of ships' superintendents (Marine and Technical) in accordance to their applicable competence and support to ships.

Marine superintendent: The person ashore, responsible for providing nautical and operational support to the ship, and to facilitate safe and efficient running of the ship.

Technical superintendent: The person ashore, responsible for providing technical and operational support to the ship, and to facilitate safe and efficient running of the ship.

 Fleet managers:

A Fleet Manager is a key position within any shipping company and this role is usually responsible for all operational aspects and budgetary control of the company’s vessels. Depending upon the company, this position together with superintends could involve the management of as few as 2 or 3 vessels up to perhaps as many as 30+ vessels.

HR managers:

HR Manager (also known as Marine HR manager) in close liaison with officers and crew onboard ships plays a key role in the safe performance of a shipping company. The role and responsibilities vary from managing recruitment, crew planning, training and development, cost monitoring and general HR matters, ensuring positive co-operation between the vessels and the office in delivering a safe and efficient operation to the satisfaction of all the company. Additionally, the HR manager ensures compliance to regulatory and industry standards as well as company standards by overseeing various elements within departments. This role is a crucial link between seafarers onboard, Marine HR, technical as well as commercial departments.

Charterers:

Chartering is an activity within the shipping industry whereby a shipowner hires out the use of their vessel to a charterer. A charterer may own cargo and employ a shipbroker to find a ship to deliver the cargo for a certain price. Some charterers own ships themselves, either on a leased or permanent basis, chartering vessels from independent ship owners when the need arises. The charterer maintains a close relationship (or communication) with the Master of the hired vessel and the shipping company to ensure that reasonable and careful inspection and maintenance of the vessel is performed in accordance with the custom of the trade. This practice ensures that the shipowner is exercising due diligence to make the vessel seaworthy to carry the charterer’s cargo. Sometimes, an inspection from the charterer is warranted for this purpose.

Cooperation between ship- and shore-based personnel

Sea‐staff, depending on the nature of trade have limited opportunities for face to face interaction with employees working in the shore-based offices of their companies. Superintendents are the most usual point of contact between companies and their sea‐staff and therefore play an important role. Much interaction between sea‐staff and office-based personnel, including charterers, takes place by email and telephone. Historically, superintendents generally adopted a managerial and hierarchical approach when visiting ships. Hence sea staff felt that they were on ‘the other side’ of what emerged as a considerable gulf between ship and shore staff working for the same companies. Poor relationships between company personnel and ship personnel resulted in the majority of seafarers feeling unable to report the full truth about a situation on board to company personnel ashore.

However, we do see some examples with certain companies who are trying new ways to better their ship-shore communications, provide improved conditions and communications structures of interaction between their  sea-shore based staff. For e.g. with better technology available onboard, practice of regular phone calls take place and in some cases video calls are getting more common. Some companies provide regular group calls with their fleet of vessels to share pains and gains during their vessel operations. Depending on the company the hierarchical approach towards Master and crew onboard have changed to being more of proving decision support as and when needed by the vessel. Some companies include better training of shore based personnel to support seafarers and pursue practices which are likely to improve the mutual understandings of seafarers and shore staff in relation to their respective jobs and working environments (for e.g. shipboard placements for management staff without sea‐experience, rotations of seafarers between shore and shipboard jobs, company seminars and training events etc).

Job demands for different positions

Physical and mental requirements

Seafarer’s job demands on board various types of ships include routine and emergency duties.

Often, this is also in the context of the seafarer living on board as well - in many cases the ship is both home and workplace. Seafarers need to be able to adjust to living and working conditions on board ships, including

• the requirement to keep watches at varying times of the day and night,
• the motion of the vessel in bad weather,
• the need to live and work within the limited spaces of a ship,
• the physical demands of climbing ladders etc and lifting heavy objects
• working under a wide variety of weather conditions.

One way of classifying seafarer’s job demands is by their functions and levels of responsibility. Typically, there are seven functional areas, at three different levels of responsibility. The levels of responsibility are:

• management level, applies to senior officers
• operational level, applies to junior officers
• support level, applies to ratings forming part of a navigational or engine watch

The following table lists the different functions and levels of responsibility at which the functions can be carried out.

These functions can be further broken into what is practically required of the seafarer. It then becomes possible to identify some of the physical and mental demands placed on the seafarer in order for them to carry out both their routine and emergency duties.

Some of these demands will be more relevant than others, depending upon the seafarer’s duties. For example, the chief steward or cook is unlikely to be part of the firefighting team. However, the ship is an enclosed community, and many tasks may need to be done by many different people, particularly if a seafarer becomes ill or is injured.

Emergency duties

In the case of an emergency or other situation where the safety of the ship, of any person on board, or of the marine environment is at stake, the Master, officers and crew are required to assist and offer their help without being requested to do so. Traditional and non-traditional crew on board ships have specific duties during emergencies and the main ship incidents are described in Chapter 2.1.3.

Depending on vessel type, audio-visual alarms inform the crew of the type of emergency and the crew must then muster and carry out their emergency duties. Different teams are compiled to tackle emergencies, and these are described in Chapter 4.3.9.

Tasks performed as part of the emergency duties of traditional crew include:

• Wearing a fire suit with breathing apparatus
• Recovering casualties or injured persons from confined spaces
• Carrying breathing apparatus bottles
• Closing fire dampers
• Acting as back up
• Carrying out technical tasks
• Rigging and operating fire hoses (usually heavy)
• Preparation, launching, manoeuvring and recovering of the lifeboat or rescue boat.

Whilst non-traditional crew, for example passenger service and entertainment staff, may need to perform the following tasks:

• Forming part of a lifeboat crew
• Assisting the firefighting team with boundary cooling using heavy hoses
• Assisting as stretcher party of possible casualties or injured persons
• Assisting as messengers having to go up and down up to eighteen decks on foot
• Assisting by being a part of the lifeboats crew
• Helping to push the lifeboat away from the ships side, when in water
• Assist in preparing and launching liferafts upon receiving instructions.
• Assisting passengers by being stairway guides
• In charge of a Muster Station as instructed
• Assisting in searching cabins for passengers and crew
• Assisting in guiding passengers to the lifeboats from the Muster Station
• Assisting moving disabled passengers

All of these emergency tasks place physical and mental demands on crewmembers. Seafarers must be able to perform these duties when required and to cope with the general, often stressful,situation.

Living at the working place

In addition, seafarers should be able to live and work closely with the same people for long periods of time and under occasionally stressful conditions. They should be capable of dealing effectively with isolation from family and friends and, in some cases, from persons of their own cultural background. Further information about living and working on board is available in other sections of Ch.4.

Any limitation to physical and mental capability may affect a seafarer’s ability to perform routine and emergency duties, for example, using breathing apparatus. Such limitations may also make rescue in the event of injury or illness difficult. In order to meet the physical and mental demands of working on board a ship, seafarers must undergo a medical examination prior to starting work on a ship, and at regular intervals after that. A satisfactory examination attests that the seafarer is medically fit to perform the duties that they are to carry out at sea. Further information on pre employment medical selection is available in Ch. 4.8.

Training and certification

The key to maintaining a healthy and safe shipping environment requires seafarers across the world to observe high standards of competence and professionalism in the duties they perform on-board. The International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) 1978, as amended in 1995 and in 2010, sets those standards, provides a framework for training and certification and controls watch keeping arrangements. Its provisions not only apply to seafarers, but also to ship-owners, training establishments and national maritime administrations. A ship cannot sail from port if the officers and ratings on board do not hold the required STCW certificates. This is important if a seafarer needs to be evacuated from a ship, that other crewmembers hold appropriate certificates to administer first-aid and/or medical care before evacuation and allow the ship’s voyage and operation to continue before replacement crew arrive.

List of STCW Courses for Seafarers:

• Deck & Engine Officer Training Courses: STCW Deck and Engine Officer Courses, Leadership & Trainer, Assessment & Examinations, and Other Related Courses for Seafarers
• Basic Safety Training Program: STCW Basic Safety Training is required for seafarers employed or engaged in any capacity on board ship at all levels.
• Environment Related Training: Marine environment and energy efficient operations STCW courses for seafarers, management and other stakeholders
• Firefighting Courses: Basic and advanced firefighting courses under STCW for seafarers and designated personnel on shore.
• Maritime Safety Courses: Basic and advanced maritime safety courses under STCW for seafarers on passenger and merchant ships.
• Medical Courses: First aid and medical care courses and training under STCW for seafarers.
• GMDSS and Radio Courses: GMDSS technical and general operators courses and training under STCW for seafarers.
• Radar & Navigational Courses: Radar, ARPA, ECDIS, IBS & INS courses and training under STCW for seafarers.
• Maritime Security Courses: Maritime security courses and training under ISPS Code and STCW for seafarers and port security personnel.
• Ship Simulator Courses: STCW approved Bridge & Engine Room; LNG, Oil, & Chemical Tanker and other maritime simulator training courses for seafarers.
• Cargo Operations Courses: Liquefied Gas, Oil, & Chemical Tanker and other cargo operations training courses under STCW for seafarers.

Ship Survey, Port State Control & SAR Courses: IMO Ship Survey, Port State Control (PSC) & Search and Rescue (SAR) courses for shipping, maritime administrations & ports officers

Certificates

The term ‘certificates’ covers all official documents required under STCW. It includes certificates of competence, endorsements, certificates of proficiency, and any documentary evidence showing that a requirement of the convention has been met. Certificates are important as they provide documentary evidence that the seafarers’ level of maritime education and training, length of service at sea, professional competence, medical fitness and age all comply with STCW standards. Every party to the convention has to ensure that certificates are only issued to those seafarers who meet STCW standards.

Training

To obtain a STCW certificate seafarers first need to successfully complete a training programme approved by the issuing administration, and/or to complete a period of approved seagoing service. Most certificates will need a combination of both. Some of the training can be provided at sea, but for more specialised and longer courses, shore-based instruction is required. A certificate is issued once the seafarer has proved competence in and knowledge of the tasks covered by the certificate to the standards required.

Levels of competence

An officer (Master, deck and engine officer) must meet minimum requirements in respect of standards of competence in accordance with relevant chapters of the STCW Convention, seagoing service time, medical fitness and age. The officer should be in possession of a valid certificate of competence according to their rank and functions on-board.

Ratings fall under three general categories; those forming part of a watch, deck or engine, those who are not assigned watch keeping duties, and those undergoing training. A rating must meet minimum standards of medical fitness and of minimum age and competencies, if designated with watch keeping duties, in accordance with the relevant chapters of the STCW Convention. They must also have completed appropriate seagoing service time, if designated with watch keeping duties. Ratings who are not assigned watch keeping duties or those still undergoing training are not required to hold watch-keeping certificates.

The sea survival course is mandatory for all sea staff regardless of role.

Medical training of ship officers:

The STCW Code PART A Chapter VI provides the basis for medical training of ship officers. On the basis these requirements the IMO has produced a series of model courses:

• Model course 1:13 “Elementary First Aid”

This model course provides training in elementary first aid at the support level and is based on the provisions of table A-VI/1-3 of the STCW Code

• Model course 1:14 “Medical First Aid”

This model course provides training in elementary first aid at operator’s level and is based on the provisions of table A-VI/4-1 of the STCW Code.

• Model course 1:15 “Medical Care”

This two-volume model course provides training in elementary first aid at management level and is based on the provisions of table A-VI/4-2 of the STCW Code.

Officers who have the responsibility for medical issues on board must have completed all three courses. The first two deal mainly with safety issues, but also with the treatment of injuries. The theoretical knowledge of medicine and first aid obtained at these courses is limited. However, officers are taught to perform some important and potentially lifesaving procedures such as the immediate care of severe injuries and of unconscious persons, and the establishment of venous access. Such training is vital as no medical advice or equipment can replace the first aid given in the first minutes after an accident or an acute disease. More information on the training in medical care for seafarers is available in Chapter 5.3.

References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafarer%27s_professions_and_ranks

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_cook

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_steward

http://seamansupport.com/ranks-merchant-shipping/

https://www.marineinsight.com/careers-2/a-guide-to-merchant-navy-officer-ranks/

https://maritimeoutlook.wordpress.com/2018/01/11/beginners-guide-to-merchant-navy-officer-ranks/

http://www.careersatsea.org/ratings-roles/

https://www.afcan.org/dossiers_reglementation/ism_p12_gb.html

IMO Train the Trainer (TTT) Course on Energy Efficient Ship Operation - Module 4 – Ship Board Energy Management

INFLUENCE OF SHIPPING COMPANY ORGANIZATION ON SHIP'S TEAM WORK EFFECTIVENESS Capt. Toni Bielić, Ph. D.

The relationships between seafarers and shore‐side personnel: An outline report based on research undertaken in the period 2012‐2016 - Helen Sampson, Iris Acejo, Neil Ellis, Lijun Tang, Nelson Turgo

STCW A Guide For Seafarers, Taking Into Account The 2010 Manila amendments - International Transport Workers’ Federation

Some Uses of Accident Data in Maritime Occupational Safety – Pekka Räisänen http://julkaisut.turkuamk.fi/isbn9789522162984.pdf

Guidelines on the medical examinations of seafarers - International Labour Office Geneva and International Maritime Organization

Emergency duties of seafarers - Stuart Greenfield, Maritime and Coastguard Agency, Maritime Health Seminar 2014

Effective ship maintenance strategy using a risk and criticality based approach - I. Lazakis, O. Turan, S. Alkaner & A.Olcer - https://pure.strath.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/39330169/Lazakis_etal_IMAM2009
_ship_maintenance_strategy_using_a_risk_and_criticality.pdf

Accident prevention on board ship at sea and in port - International Labour Office Geneva - //www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_protect/@protrav/@
safework/documents/normativeinstrument/wcms_107798.pdf">
https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/@ed_protect/@protrav/@
safework/documents/normativeinstrument/wcms_107798.pdf

C.2 General seafaring terms

Details

Published: 09 January 2022

VIVEK MENON with contributions from BOB BRIDGER and MARGARETHA HOLTENSDOTTER LÜTZHÖFT

Types of vessels

There are many types of vessels depending on the type or cargoes carried and/or its purpose. Vessels are built based on the requirements for transportation of particular commodities that differ from place to place, industry to industry and country to country.

Vessel category

Vessels can be categorised on the basis of:

1. Their mode of support on water
   1. Hydrostatically supported i.e. supported by force of buoyancy
   2. Dynamically supported i.e. supported partially by buoyancy and partially or fully by other forces (hydrodynamic or aerostatic)

In order for a vessel to obtain certain speed and thereby move distance a force needs to be exerted on the vessel. A propulsion system provides this force, which usually consists of an engine or turbine, gearboxes, propeller shaft and propeller. The design of the propulsion system varies depending on the type of vessel and primarily takes care of the different resistances that a vessel encounters, such as resistance caused due to friction, pressure, wave and air.

In addition, it is important to have an optimum underwater ship design in the form of minimum resistance for the vessels intended purpose.

1. Function of the vessel - commercial vessels fall under three categories,
2. vessels that carry persons or things,
3. vessels that keep sea lanes open or the utility vessels, and

• specialised vessel

Figures 1-4 gives you an overview of the various types of vessel category.

Figure 1 Mode of transport

Figure 2 Mission of vessel

Figure 3 Vessels that carry persons or things

Figure 4 Bulk cargoes

Cargo carriers

General cargo ship

General cargo ships were once the predominant type of merchant ship. Generally small to medium size ships, they are usually equipped with their own cranes or derricks for handling their cargoes. This makes them versatile in terms of the cargo they can carry and the ports in which they are able to work.

Hazards specific to this ship type tend to relate to the large number of moving parts when working with cargo, such as wires, hatches and associated lifting gear. Other hazards include working with a variety of lashing gear, which may be heavy and require use in unstable positions. Working at heights is also a hazard when working such vessels.

Container ship

Container ships are characterized by the absence of cargo handling gear, reflecting the usual practice of locating the container-handling cranes at shore terminals rather than aboard ship. Unlike the tanker, container ships require large hatches in the deck for stowing the cargo, which consists of standardized containers usually either 20 or 40 feet in length. These ships may be small coastal ‘feeder’ vessels or vast inter-continental liners.

The stacks of containers on deck identify container ships. They are usually modern, fast and efficient which mean that their stays in port are normally short (6hours to 24 hours).

The main hazards on this type of vessel are heavy deck lashings that may be lying about the deck or fall from above and containers being lifted overhead. Many containers contain dangerous goods that can, occasionally, leak or cause other issues. Containers may also have toxic atmospheres from the use of fumigants such as methyl bromide or cyanide. Appropriate Personal Protective Equipment may be required by the crew.

Barge-carrying ships

An extension of the container ship concept is the barge-carrying ship. Here the container itself is a floating vessel, usually about 60 feet long by about 30 feet wide, which is loaded aboard the ship in one of two ways. Either it is lifted over the stern by a high-capacity shipboard gantry crane, or the ship is partially submerged so that the barges can be floated aboard via a gate in the stern.

Ro-Ro ships

Ro-Ro stands for Roll on - Roll off. Roll-on/roll-off ships are designed for the carriage of wheeled cargo, and are distinguished by large doors in the hull (usually at the bow, stern or in some cases the ships side) and often by external ramps that fold down to allow rolling between pier and ship.

Huge car carriers, for example, employ this principle to transport cars between continents. Turnaround in port can be quite fast.

Moving vehicles, fumes from vehicles inside the ship, heavy lifting and working in physically wearing postures constitute some of the main hazards in this type of ship.

Dry Bulk carriers

Bulk Carriers usually carry unpackaged (i.e. ‘bulk’) dry cargoes, such as coal, grain and ores that are poured directly into the ships’ holds. Other forms of cargoes such as steel slabs, coils, pipes, are also carried on bulk crriers. These ships vary considerably in size from small coastal vessels to large ships, which carry tens of thousands of tonnes of cargo. They may be equipped with their own cargo handling cranes, but often rely on shore conveyors and cranes to handle cargo.

The primary hazard in these ships is loose material underfoot (e.g. piles of coal dust and particles), and large grabs operating overhead in  the hatches. In addition, there are specific risks based on the cargo being carried, e.g. coal can lead to spontaneous combustion, lead ores can be associated with toxicity, wood chips can emit toxic gases (carbon monoxide), organic cargoes can lead to oxygen deficiency and soya as a cargo runs the risk of acting as an allergen.

Oil Tankers

Oil tankers carry oil, or oil products, in bulk.

The cargoes are pumped directly into or out of the ship’s tanks. Tankers have their own cargo handling pumps that are housed in a pump room low down in the ship. Tankers vary in size from small coastal vessels to vast ships where the crew sometimes use bicycles to get around the main deck!

The main hazard on a tanker is fire. Precautions must be taken to prevent smoking and avoid static or sparks. Equipment and clothing used on a tanker must be intrinsically safe (no mobile phones or ‘normal’ torches, for example) and anti-static (no ‘normal’ nylon jackets, steel tools, etc). These ships often bond to the quay by means of a heavy cable to prevent the build-up of static electricity. Tankers use inert gas to reduce the fire risk and this causes problems with tank entry or cleaning. In the event of an electrical storm, cargo work may be suspended.

Gas Tankers

Gas tankers carry liquefied gas in bulk and vary in size from small coastal ships to huge vessels. Some of these gas tankers use their cargo for steam generated propulsion and as such as the only remaining commercial ‘steamships’. They fall into two main categories, those designed to carry liquefied petroleum gas (LPG, such as butane or propane) and those designed to carry liquefied natural gas (LNG – methane).

In both cases the gas is pumped directly into and out of the ship’s tanks. The gas remains in a liquid state by refrigeration, pressurisation, or a combination of these methods, depending on the design of the ship. There may be a plant on board to perform these functions.

The main hazard in these ships is the same as those for oil tankers, i.e. fire. Another hazard in gas tankers is that the cargo may be carried at very low temperatures (-163ْ C in LNG ships). This means that cargo pipelines and any spillages may ‘burn’ items in contact with them.

Chemical Tankers

Chemical tankers tend to be smaller, complex vessels with many cargo tanks (about 30). They are capable of carrying many different categories of chemicals in bulk and have individual tanks and cargo pipelines constructed from different material to cope with different cargoes.

The hazards in chemical tankers are similar to gas tankers, that is, fire and contact with the cargo. Some cargoes are intrinsically toxic and precautions need to be in place to manage any loss of containment or contamination of seafarers. In addition, chemical cargoes can be carcinogenic in nature and long-term low-level exposure to such cargoes can be hazardous. Between cargoes, tanks may need to be cleaned with strong acids or alkalis and these in turn may injure workers if protective measures are not used and/ or clothing is defective.

Other tankers include those designed to carry edible oils, molasses, etc.

Passenger carriers

Ferries

Ferries are vessels of any size that carry passengers and (in many cases) their vehicles on fixed routes over short cross-water passages. Vessels vary greatly in size and in quality of accommodations. Some on longer runs offer overnight cabins and even come close to equalling the accommodation standards of cruise ships, others offer rudimentary seating only. All vessels typically load vehicles aboard one or more decks via low-level side doors or by stern or bow ramps much like those found on roll-on/roll-off cargo ships.

A special type of ferry is the “double-ender,” built for shuttling across harbour waters with loading ramps at both ends. Special docks, fitted with adjustable ramps to cope with changes in water levels and shaped to fit the ends of the ferry, are always a necessary part of a ferry system of this type.

Figure 14 Ferry crossing Puget Sound, Seattle.© Dwight Smith/Shutterstock.com

Moving vehicles, fumes from vehicles inside the ship, heavy lifting and working in physically wearing postures constitute some of the main hazards in this type of ship. Additionally, there are risks associated to the management of large crowds.

Cruise ships

Cruise ships are descended from the transatlantic ocean liners, which, since the mid-20th century, have found their services pre-empted by jet aircraft. Most of them are designed for large numbers of passengers (perhaps several thousand) and they are characterized by high superstructures of many decks. Since their principal routes lie in warm seas, they are typically painted white all over. Many cruise ships have stern ramps, much like those found on cargo-carrying roll-on/roll-off ships in order to facilitate the transfer of passengers to the launches and to serve as docking facilities for small sporting boats.

Heavy lifting and working in physically wearing postures constitute some of the main hazards in this type of ship. Additionally, there are risks associated to the management of large crowds

High Speed Craft

Another special type of ferry is a high-speed vessel that in many cases is of catamaran (twin-hulled) design. High speed craft are generally employed in short sea routes to compete with conventional passenger ferry traffic. They are usually smaller than traditional ships, may be mono or multi hull vessels and operate at speeds in excess of 40 knots in order to halve crossing times on most routes. However, they do not carry vehicles.

Hazards inherent in this type of vessel should be restricted to those that are unavoidable in ships, such as the gangway or storm steps. The demands on navigating officers of such vessels can be high, especially when in congested shipping lanes or complex channels because of the speed with which a serious incident can arise.

Service vessels

Tugs and tows

Tugs are towing vessels whose principal function is to provide propulsive power to other vessels. Most of them serve in harbours and inland waters and are small in size. Tugs may be used in port for pushing and pulling ships, manoeuvring in the harbour, or for towing structures and vessels at sea. They are normally powerful, compact vessels with specialised towing equipment on the aft deck.

The towing of massive drilling rigs for the petroleum industry and an occasional salvage operation (e.g. towing a disabled ship) demand vessels larger and more seaworthy than the more common inshore service vessels.

The primary hazard for visitors on tugs is that alleyways and stairs tend to be narrow and steep due to the space available. Furthermore, tugs use steel hawsers under tension and these can pose hazards to seafarers working on deck because of changing tow directions or tensions, from winding operations or from hawsers parting and uncoiling.

Icebreakers

Icebreakers are usually owned by government. They are not large in size, since no cargo is to be carried. However, icebreakers are usually wide in order to make a wide swath through ice, and they have high propulsive power to overcome the resistance of the ice layer.

Icebreaker ships are a special class of ships that are designed to break even thickest of the ice and make some of the most inhospitable paths accessible to the world, navigating through the ice-covered waters, for e.g. the Polar Regions. Ice-breakers have a strengthened hull to resist ice-covered waters, a special ice-clearing shape design to move or make a path forward and extreme power to navigate through sea ice.

The prime functions of an icebreakers include clearing the trade routes in the icy waters, especially during winters. Even though some newly constructed commercial and passenger vessels are designed to navigate through the icy waters, the seasonal ice conditions make it difficult for these vessels to manage themselves. Therefore, icebreakers escort these vessels to ensure safe and ease of navigation. In addition to clearing a passage for the commercial and passenger vessels, icebreakers are also widely used to support research programmes conducted in the Polar regions.

The primary hazard on board these vessels is ice. The crew working on board these vessels can be subjected to extremely low temperatures, severe weather conditions, ice crushing pressure on the hull which can lead to emergency conditions and icing of work surfaces.

Research vessel

Research vessels are usually owned by governments and are designed, modified, or equipped to carry out research at sea. The sole purpose for operating a research vessel is to provide a seaborne platform from which scientists can accomplish oceanographic research. Cranes and winches for handling nets and small underwater vehicles often identify them externally. They are not large in size, since no cargo is to be carried. Internally, research vessels are usually characterized by laboratory and living spaces for the research personnel.

Onboard these ships you will find a mix of ship’s crew and scientists and/or researchers. Usually the Master and Chief Scientist (or Researcher) are responsible for the safe operation of the vessel and for preventing pollution, and providing a clear line of communication between the operating crew and the research party respectively.

Conducting research at sea is inherently risky with exposures to various conditions depending on the type or research and time spent at sea.

Supply & Stand-By Vessels

Supply vessels and stand by vessels work in offshore oil and gas fields. Supply vessels carry supplies to and from offshore installations on, on a flat deck at the aft end of the ship and in tanks below deck.

Stand-by vessels wait near to the offshore fields to ‘guard’ the fields against traffic which may stray too close to the offshore installations and to respond in the event of an emergency in the field.

Hazards associated with this type of ship are those connected with working cargo, such as gear about the deck and goods moving overhead.

Fleet Auxiliary/Naval logistic support

The ‘Auxiliary’ Fleet is usually part of the merchant navy and employs civilian seafarers whilst supporting the Navy in carrying supplies and stores for the warships.

The Auxiliary fleet, therefore, has a variety of ship types, from tankers to dry cargo ships that undertake specialist work such as replenishing warships at sea, or helicopter operations. They may also be used independently, for instance, in humanitarian relief missions.

The United States’ auxiliary fleet is known as Sealift Command.

Hazards in these vessels are similar to those for other ships of the type, e.g. a tanker. In addition, they may be working in war zones or close to areas of conflict and so be at risk of attack.

Warships and Military Vessels

Figure 23: Credit SteveAllenPhoto iStock

Warships and military vessels, such as those of the Navy, Army and Air Force, are part of the fighting forces and manned by service personnel, rather than civilians.

Warships undertake a variety of roles including defence, security and PR/diplomatic visits around the world, representing their government’s interests.

Industrial ships

Drill ships

A drillship is a merchant vessel designed for use in the exploratory offshore drilling of new oil and gas wells or for scientific drilling purposes. In more recent years, the vessels are used in deepwater and ultra-deepwater applications, equipped with the latest and most advanced dynamic positioning systems.

Working onboard drillships that operate in deep waters, poses various types of hazards due to weather and operational conditions. For e.g. long work hours and little rest, poses risk of accidents. Some other examples of risks are:

Amputations, which may occur when hands or feet get caught in hazardous machinery.

Fall injuries, often caused by unsecured ladders, slippery stairways, and crowded platforms.

Chemical exposure due to oil drilling operations produce high concentrations of hydrogen sulphide, and prolonged exposure can cause respiratory distress, paralysis, and cancer.

Explosions and fires due to the highly combustible nature of petroleum, fires and explosions are a constant and serious threat. These accidents can cause severe burns and respiratory distress from the inhalation of smoke and toxins.

Fish processing vessel

A factory ship, also known as a fish processing vessel, is a large ocean-going vessel with extensive on-board facilities for processing and freezing caught fish or whales. Modern factory ships are automated and enlarged versions of the earlier whalers and their use in fishing has grown dramatically. Some factory ships are equipped to serve as a mother ship to a number of smaller fishing vessels.

Hazards found in different types of fishing operations are very similar and the levels of risk arising from specific hazards may vary between types of vessels. Compared to inshore fishing vessels, fish processing vessels use heavier machinery, more electricity, have more confined spaces, and are at sea for much longer periods. The most common types of work that are known to be high risk activities for the safety and health of crew members are:

• the winch, cables, ropes and otterboards^[1], which are clear causes of occupational injuries;
• tasks associated with fishing operations, such as shooting or hauling in the net, are responsible for

the majority of falls overboard and accidents;

• lighting and visibility in the handling and transit zones is frequently inadequate; and
• the noise to which crews are exposed, even in the rest area, is often at levels regarded as dangerous, particularly for those crew members working in the engine room.

Fishing Vessels

These are usually very hard-working ships that specialise in catching fish. They are often very small compared with merchant ships and fall into two main types:– Trawlers, which tend to have large stern mounted structures designed to handle the nets dragged astern of the ship as she makes way at sea, or Drifters, which set long nets that lie in the water before stopping to drift with the tides/current.

Hazards include the large amount of gear that may be lying about the slippery decks.

Fishermen may spend days at sea often with little sleep, working in worse conditions than most seafarers do. The crew may be suffer from fatigue because of the commercial pressures to keep fishing until there is a full catch. Where fish processing is done on board there are also additional risks, as above. Fishing vessels travel into more and more remote waters in their search for a good catch, for example, the Barents Sea. This increases the risks from bad weather etc and also means that it is more difficult to render assistance if necessary.

A distinct set of problems arise in the coastal and artisanal fishing sectors where small boats are used, and formal employment is often replaced by a profit-sharing agreement among the crew. More information on the fishing industry is available in Ch. 3.2.5.

General terms

Terms and names used on board can vary from company to company and ship to ship, but the following will provide a reasonable basis for understanding of some shipboard terminology.

General Layout of vessel 

Figure 27 General Layout

Basic definitions of selected terms

Access to vessels

There are many types of access systems to vessels, and they pose various hazards depending on the type of rigging and location. These hazards are usually associated to incorrect rigging or otherwise in a poor condition and dangerous working practices. There is a constant risk of serious injuries (or deaths), including drowning caused by falls from gangways or embarkation ladders.

Gangway – means of access to a ship, normally set at right angles to the vessel, secured to the ship’s deck at one end and resting on the quay at the other

Figure 28: Credit Frank Cornelissen - iStock

Accommodation Ladder – means of access to a larger ship. It is ship’s gear and normally a permanently rigged ‘stairway’ onto vessels

Figure 29: Credit- UK MAIB

Pilot Ladder – a substantial rope ladder usually lying against the ship’s side.

It is used primarily for embarking and dis-embarking of pilots.

Additionally it may be used during crew changes when other ladders cannot be used.

Figure 30: Credit Gard Alert: Pilot transfers – still a risky business

Jacobs Ladder – a lighter, ‘portable’ rope ladder

Figure 31: Credit The Transportation Safety Board of Canada (TSB)

Tower – a rigid, shore-based structure incorporating a stairway up to a platform upon which a ‘gangway’ stretches to the ship

Figure 32: Credit The Society of International Gas Tanker and Terminal Operators (SIGTTO)

Jetty Ladder – a vertical metal ladder built into a jetty to provide access to craft lying below the level of the jetty

Figure 33: ⓒ 2020 Trelleborg Marine and Infrastructure

Link span – a heavy shore structure over which vehicular traffic gains access to vessels (such as ferries)

Figure 34: Credit MacGregor is part of Cargotec Corporation ©Cargotec 2020.

Ramp – may be bow, stern or side mounted on a ship to allow vehicular access

Figure 35: Credit © 2021 Wärtsilä

References

• MUNRO-SMITH, R. Elements of Ship Design. London; Marine Media Management; 1975
• MUNRO-SMITH, R. Ships and Naval Architecture. Institute of Marine Engineers; 1973
• Muckle W. Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers. Butterworth & Co (Publishers); 1975
• Thomas Charles Gillmer, Bruce Johnson Introduction to Naval Architecture. Naval Institute Press; 1985.
• Stokoe E. A. Naval Architecture for Marine Engineers. Thomas Reed; 1973.
• Klaas van Dokkum. Ship Knowiedge A Modern Encyciopaedia. DOKMAR; 2003

^[1] Otterboards are used to keep the net open and may be made of iron, wood, or both. They may be oval, rectangular,

hollow or solid.

C.4 Life on board

Details

Published: 09 January 2022

MARCUS OLDENBURG, HANS JOACHIM JENSEN, SURESH N IDNANI

The routine activities for Masters, officers and crews are determined by the

• type of ship, for example, container vessel, bulk carrier or chemical tanker, general cargo ship or cruise ship,
• shipping routes,
• particular weather and climatic conditions and
• ship’s operations.

Ship´s routines and watches

HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN, MARCUS OLDENBURG

A 24-hour watch operation on the bridge is required during the sea, river or canal voyage,

 but not in the port. Each watch should involve a nautical watch officer and one or more deck ratings. The nautical watch officer takes over the visual and auditory control of the ship's command. This includes navigation and ship safety. As the engines of modern ships can be controlled and operated from the bridge by nautical watch officers, there is no need for corresponding watch keeping by technical officers.

In seafaring today, the three-watch system is most common. The 24-hour day is divided into 6 consecutive periods of watch keeping, and each watch has two periods of four hours on, followed by eight hours off. The 2^nd officer is responsible for the so-called 0 to 4 watch (00.00 - 04.00 and 12.00-16.00), the 1^st officer for the 4 to 8 watch (04.00-08.00 and 16.00-20.00) and the 3^rd officer for the 8 to 12 watch (08:00-12:00 and 20:00-24:00). There is a watch-free operation in the engine room outside of the daily work routine. In the event of machine malfunctions, an alarm is triggered, which leads to appropriate action by the technical officers.

On smaller ships, the two-watch system is often practised by dividing the 24-hour day into 2 watch units. Here the 2^nd officer is in charge of the 0 to 6 watch (00:00-06:00 and 12:00-18:00) and the 1^st officer for the 6 to 12 watch (06:00-12:00 and 18:00-24:00). In all watch systems, the Master can take over the watch at any time in critical situations.

Other routine tasks in ship operation include maintenance and repair work on deck and in the engine room, cargo handling and cargo securing, acceptance of fuel, spare parts and catering, safety and emergency exercises, administrative work and documentation.

Food

MARCUS OLDENBURG, HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN

The Maritime Labour Convention 2006 (MLC) provides the legal basis for the living conditions on board, including food provisions [1]. It aims ‘to ensure that seafarers have access to good quality food and drinking water provided under regulated hygienic conditions’. A critical appraisal of the MLC reveals that the nutritional situation on board is neither standardised nor mandatory, but adapted to the standard of each member state.

The cook is in charge of the preparation of food on board. In cooking courses lasting only a few weeks, cooks gain basic knowledge on how to manage their job on board. Often they have only a small repertoire of recipes that they repeat every 2 to 3 weeks. The ship’s cook is also responsible for ordering the food and is normally supported and advised by shore based ship-specific caterers. After the provision lists are drawn up, the captain checks and supplements them, according to his own preferences. Furthermore, a low catering budget, the limited possibilities regarding the supply and storage of fresh food during long sea voyages and the often limited access to ports where food can be brought on board pose major problems in the shipboard food provision.

As a rule, seafarers have very little influence on the quality and diversity of their nutrition, especially during sea voyages on board merchant vessels travelling worldwide. Seafarers’ nutrition has often been described as a high-fat diet with a high proportion of meat. Correspondingly, a Nordic study showed that 64% of seafarers were overweight and 23% of them were estimated as being obese [2]. Possible poor nutrition, combined with a lack of exercise and a high level of professional stress, represents a crucial risk factor for cardiovascular disease among seafarers. 

In current seafaring situations, warm meals are usually served three times a day.  Food is served in the crew’s mess room for the ratings and in the officers’ mess room for the officers. The food available in the mess rooms may differ, taking into account the different cultural requirements and habits. Furthermore, the actual dietary conditions on merchant ships are characterised by a lack of self-determination in the selection of food, different dietary habits in multi-ethnic crews and irregular mealtimes due to the shift pattern on board.

References

1.         Maritime Labour Convention (2006). http://www.ilo.org/global/standards/maritime-labour-convention/WCMS_090250/lang--en/index.htm. Accessed at January 2019.

2.         Hoyer JL, Hansen H. Overweight among Nordic male seafarers. 8th International Symposium of Maritime Health 2005, Rijeka, Croatia.

Accommodation

HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN , MARCUS OLDENBURG

The accommodation and furnishings on board seagoing ships should contribute significantly to the well-being of seafarers. Due to the short time spent in port, it is now rarely possible for seafarers to ‘get away’ from on board operations by going ashore. Thus, the cabins are the only private retreat for many seafarers. The size, type and furnishing of the accommodation and leisure facilities depend on the type, size and age of the vessels and the rank of the respective seafarer. In general, larger and newer vessels usually offer better accommodation and amenities than older and, particularly, smaller ones. In many cases, the former have far better leisure facilities with a fitness room and a swimming pool. In contrast, accommodation on small ships, such as the ships in the feeder services of North Sea and Baltic Sea traffic, is cramped and often there is no space for a fitness room. In addition, the crews on smaller vessels often do not have internet access in their cabins.  Seafarers are often affected by vibration and noise whilst in their cabins and the normally sparse furniture in the seafarers’ accommodations may be firmly anchored to the floor to prevent movement during high seas.

Even on the large cruise ships with a high number of seafarers, accommodation is cramped, especially for the ratings. They may have 6 to 10 m² twin cabin with bunk beds and a small separate bathroom. A curtain in front of each bed provides the only individual privacy. Often they are inside cabins, or cabins below the water level, without portholes. The officers' single cabins are normally bigger, with portholes or a window, and the captain and other senior officers, may have a suite with several rooms.

The MLC contains requirements for newer ships in terms of the size of accommodation, heating and ventilation, sanitary facilities, noise and vibration as well as lighting and hospital facilities. According to the Lloyd's Register Educational Trust^[1], there are significant differences in the quality of accommodation and facilities on board, and a high percentage of seafarers are dissatisfied with their accommodation.

Leisure time on board

HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN, MARCUS OLDENBURG

With decreased time spent in port and therefore restricted access to shore based facilities, long periods of separation from their social environment, high job demands and  no strict separation of work  and leisure time at sea, sufficient recreation facilities on board are important for the wellbeing of the seafarers.

Leisure activities available on board depend on the type of ship, the equipment in leisure rooms, the sailing area and the composition and size of the crew. Cultural behaviour patterns as well as the work situation on board also have an influence on leisure behaviour. A distinction can be made between individual and collective as well as active and passive leisure activities. On board, the focus is more on passive behaviour, for instance watching DVDs, listening to music or just relaxing. Sports activities are more frequent on ships operating worldwide than on small feeder ships and seafarers on these worldwide vessels generally have fewer opportunities for leisure time spent off the ship. There are also differences between the different occupational groups. Amongst the ratings, with their typically higher level of physical job tasks, there is little willingness to do sport. Sitting together and karaoke are common leisure activities among Eastern Asian seafarers, especially Filipinos. Officers, on the other hand, are more likely to find an individual sporting activity.

In feeder shipping with its special workload caused by irregular and often long working hours, seafarers prefer using their leisure time for recreation and sleep. Due to the better communication possibilities in the coastal area, contact with their families is paramount to the crews. The psychosocial leisure environment, which includes the possibility of IT contacts with their families, is particularly important for East Asian seafarers with their rather socio-centric values.  

In contrast, newer cruise ships with a high number of seafarers have more extensive recreational facilities. They may include a separate sport and fitness room, bar, other recreation rooms, swimming pool and a separate deck area for the crew’s leisure activities, for example for sunbathing. The use of such facilities varies depending on the occupational group and culture-specific differences. Parties are organised for various occasions such as birthdays, crew change etc., often with alcohol offered. These leisure time events also serve as an important source of relaxation after a hard working day.

Physical fitness opportunities

MARCUS OLDENBURG, HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN

The opportunity for physical training is important, especially during long, tedious voyages. Here, seafarers often perform monotonous job-related activities in which some of their muscles are not used sufficiently. In addition to the health benefits, sport also encourages team building due to social interaction. Since recreation time is often limited in seafaring, especially on board feeder ships, time for physical activity has to fit in with the daily work schedules on board. For successful implementation of fitness on board, a positive attitude towards fitness training is necessary on the part of the shipping company. Although several shipping companies have already improved shipboard exercise opportunities in recent years, there are still a lot of vessels without sufficient or suitable facilities. A well-equipped fitness room should contain cardio-training equipment such as treadmills, steppers, rowing machines or bicycles. Weight benches or balls are also often used in fitness rooms. Music, positive pictures, sufficient lighting and a view outside the exercise room may raise the motivation for fitness activities.

 Motivating seafarers to do enough physical activity can be demanding. A prerequisite for such motivation is that the seafarers enjoy the physical activities on board. It is particularly important that the Master and other officers should take part in the fitness programme to set an example. Organised sports events or competitions on the ships, in which the seafarers can pit their strength against each other, either individually or in groups, provide a strong motivation for exercise.

Social life

HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN, MARCUS OLDENBURG

Practically speaking, the most important characteristic of a seafarer’s life on ships is the lack of demarcation between work and leisure time. The seafarers work and live together over several months in a heterogeneous group from different cultures. Consequently, the majority of the crew do not normally talk in their native language − neither during their working time nor in their leisure time − which may lead to comprehension problems and affect their well-being. The hierarchical crew structure among the different occupational groups also influences social life on board. The different lengths of the seafarer’s time on board as a rule, 4 months for European officers and up to 12 months for East Asian crew ranks, lead to frequent changes in the personnel on board. New seafarers signing on can change the communication and social relationships on board considerably. In addition to these basic conditions of ship operation, different cultural standards and cultural backgrounds in a multi-ethnic crew also influence the social life on board. The sociocentric orientation of the East Asian seafarers, with the Philippines as the largest group in terms of numbers, leads to a pronounced attachment to their own ethnic group. Often, however, they complain about poor communication on board and feel discriminated against. Consequently, this occupational group often express a feeling of loneliness. The situation is different among the seafarers of European cultural context, who are mostly officers. However, ties to their own communicative cultural background can also increase the social distance on board, especially towards subordinate seafarers.

The large and very heterogeneous crews on cruise ships often come from more than 40 different nations, and this determines social life on board. The crew structure, especially in the hotel sector, comprises very different occupational groups, from service personnel to that in the wellness and entertainment areas. The close coexistence of people from different nations also leads to stronger social control. The need for cohesion in one's own linguistic-cultural group offers a certain protection in this context. Nevertheless, withdrawal and isolation of seafarers also frequently occurs on cruise ships.

Time off in port

HANS-JOACHIM JENSEN, MARCUS OLDENBURG

During their time on board, the seafarers integrate into the closed social system of the ship with its hierarchical structure. Face-to-face communication over a long time may be limited to a few colleagues, leading to rather narrow communication on board with hardly any new content. This is why contact opportunities and new communication partners outside of the on board operation are very important for maintaining social competence. They allow the seafarers to leave their roles in the hierarchical ship operation and use different contact and communication means, at least for a short time.

The main reasons for going ashore are communication with the family, transferring money to the family and using shopping facilities for essential items. The desire to visit a bar or for other amusements is rather rare in many seafarers. To do so would mean spending money, which is something many seafarers, particularly non-Europeans, want to avoid.

The growing efficiency in maritime port turnover has led to a significant reduction in the time that seagoing vessels spend in port. In combination with strict security requirements in many ports in accordance with the International Ship and Port Facility Security (ISPS) Code, this has significantly reduced the shore leave opportunities for seafarers. Public health concerns such as the 2020/21 pandemic can also lead to further restrictions. In addition, the ports may be relatively far away from the central urban area and there are often insufficient or no transfer possibilities. Feeder vessels have a particularly short time in port. During these short berthing periods, these ships often have to call at several terminals for the unloading and loading of cargo. This requires the seafarer’s presence on board for the ship's manoeuvres. In addition, maintenance and repair work that cannot be carried out during the voyage is often necessary, especially in the engine room. The officers are even more closely involved in on board operations including port clearance, monitoring of cargo handling and bunkering. Due to the mentioned problems, many seafarers prefer visiting welfare organisations in the proximity of the port.

Women Seafarers

SURESH N IDNANI, HANS JOACHIM JENSEN, MARCUS OLDENBURG

A career in the maritime industry is not considered mainstream or ‘professional’, and is also not very well known to many young women. Nevertheless, the maritime industry is now seeing women seafarers enrol in a once male dominated shipping career.

In 1988, few maritime training institutes accepted female students. The International Maritime Organisation (IMO) was instrumental in establishing global programme known as the Integration of Women in the Maritime Sector (IWMS). The primary objective was to encourage IMO member States to open the doors of their maritime institutes to enable women to train alongside men and so acquire the high-level of competence that the maritime industry demands. The programme includes but is not limited to

• strengthening national and regional capacities through gender-specific fellowships
• facilitating access to high-level technical training for women in the maritime sector in developing countries and
• facilitating the identification and selection of women by their respective authorities for career development opportunities in maritime administrations, ports and maritime training institutes.

IMO's programme is now 30 years old and continues to empower women to fuel thriving economies, spur productivity and growth, and benefit every stakeholder in the global maritime community.

Women seafarers may also have to deal with discrimination, bullying and harassment, including sexual harassment or even abuse while at sea. Many maritime unions and companies are alert to these dangers and strive to protect the interests of women members – who now number about 23,000 worldwide (10).They are also are more susceptible to social isolation than their male counterparts and it is worth considering employing more than one female seafarer on the same voyage when possible. Guidelines in this area have been produced by the ITF (16). 

A 2014 study looked at the health and welfare needs of women seafarers and how organisations can best make or campaign for improvements to the health information and services available to women seafarers (17). The responses received highlighted a small number of areas where relatively simple and low-cost interventions might improve the health and welfare of women seafarers. Specifically, these include:

• the production and appropriate distribution of gender-specific information on back pain, mental health and nutrition in addition to gynaecological complaints,
• the introduction of means for disposing of sanitary waste for all female crew on all ships and
• the improved availability of female specific products e.g. sanitary products in port shops and welfare centres worldwide.

In addition, much work needs to be done to build confidence amongst women seafarers in being able to speak confidentially with the officer responsible for medical care and in addressing sexual harassment. The support of all of the main stakeholders is important to carry on with further work in this area.

^[1] Ellis, N., Sampson, H., Acejo, I., Tang, L., Turgo, N., Zhao, Z Seafarer. Accommodation on Contemporary Cargo Ships. The Lloyd's Register Educational Trust Unit, December 2012

^[2] Oldenburg M, Jensen HJ. Recreational possibilities for seafarers during shipboard leisure time. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 2019 Oct;92(7):1033-1039. doi: 10.1007/s00420-019-01442-3. Epub 2019 May 21. PMID: 31114964